Welcome to the timelines of mathematics education.. The timelines show events in mathematics education in England and the USA to allow easy comparisons of what has happened over time in the two countries. They will be useful if you are conducting research, teaching or if you are simply interested in mathematics education.
USA
Traditional Teaching
1788
In New and Complete System of Arithmetic – Composed for the Use of the Citizens of the United States, Nicolas Pike provides a scripted set of teaching protocols: first, state the arithmetic rule, then exemplify the rule, before finally encouraging students to complete a set of practice exercises.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Discovery Learning
1820
Warren Colburn’s First Lessons in Arithmetic – was one of the first attempts to change the teaching approach from the traditionalist to more progressive ("new math"), encouraging pupils to discover rules themselves.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Mathematics education
1831
The Southern and Western Calculator (Bridge) declares that rules are needed, and pupils cannot invent them.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Mathematics education
1832
The Common School Arithmetic (Bates Botham) emphasises direct instruction, memorisation, and skill practice. Other publications at the time strengthened this popular perception.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Activity Movement
1845
The Activity Movement (drawing on the writings of Kilpatrick) encourages integration of subjects in elementary schools and argues against separate instruction in mathematics and other subjects.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
Mathematics education
1845
Societal hope in progress through scientific method applied to classrooms through streamlining mathematics education.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
The Newcastle report
1861
The Newcastle committee was asked to investigate how to extend cheap elementary education to all children. The report states that a significant number of children weren’t in school at all, many other children attended for fewer than 100 days per year and that those attending did not achieve a high level of education.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Government code
1862
The government implemented a new code where schools were paid by results. They got a grant for each child attending regularly who could pass an exam in reading, writing and arithmetic.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
National curriculum
1862
The first national curriculum was introduced. It listed the knowledge children should display at three stages of education: standard 1 (aged 7-8), standard 2 (aged 8-10) and standard 3 (aged 10+). It contained content similar to the modern curriculum, such as adding and subtracting figures up to 10 at standard 1.
Curriculum
ENGLAND
Elementary Education Act
1870
The Elementary Education Act guaranteed all children to receive an education between the ages of 5 and 13.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Mathematical Association
1871
The Mathematical Association (MA) was formed to lobby government for alternative ways of teaching geometry.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Committee of Ten
1892
National Education Association (NEA) appoints the Committee on Secondary School Studies. The Committee of Ten produce a report that establishes the traditional high school sequence of algebra, geometry, and advanced algebra as separate courses.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
National curriculum
1898
The first national curriculum was discontinued for financial reasons. There was no national curriculum in England from 1898 until 1989.
Curriculum
USA
Education reform
1899
The School and Society: Being Three Lectures (1899) by Father of Progressivism John Dewey promulgates many key precepts of later education reform.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
School leaving examinations
1917
Two new examinations were introduced: the School (leaving) Certificate (SC) for students aged 16 and the High School Leaving Certificate (HSC) for students aged 18. Mathematics was one of the subjects students were required to take.
Assessments and tests
USA
Mathematics education
1920
Kilpatrick (protégé of John Dewey) publishes The Problem of Mathematics in Secondary Education (one of the most influential documents for education in 20th Century).
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Reacting to Progressivism
1920
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) founded, mostly through the instigation of the Mathematical Association of America (MAA).
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
NCTM
1920
First NCTM president (C. M. Austin) promises that NCTM would “keep the values and interests of mathematics before the educational world” and urges that “curriculum studies and reforms and adjustments come from the teachers of mathematics rather than from the educational reformers.”
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Mathematics education
1922
Edward L. Thorndike’s The Psychology of Arithmetic emphasises extensive practice of isolated skills.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
NCTM
1923
NCTM publishes Report of the National Committee on Mathematical Requirements - exerts some influence on public education. It proposes curricula for schools, documents the training of mathematics teachers in other countries, explores issues related to the psychology of learning mathematics, and justifies the study of mathematics in terms of its applications as well as its inherent value. NCTM play an important role in disseminating what becomes the 1923 Report.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
The Hadow report
1923
The Hadow report suggested that boys and girls should be taught the same curriculum, although it stated that girls should be given an extra year to study the content.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Teacher education
1925
Foundations of Method (Kilpatrick) becomes a standard text for teacher education courses across the country.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
School Certificate
1928
The passing requirements were changed for the School Certificate so that students had to pass five subjects: one English subject, a language, a mathematics or science subject, plus two other subjects.
Assessments and tests
USA
Mathematics education
1935
William Brownell’s chapter titled 'Psychological considerations in the learning and the teaching of arithmetic' appears in NCTM’s 'The Teaching of Arithmetic' book.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Geometry teaching
1937
The Board of Education recommended that practical work should be included in geometry teaching.
Mathematics specifics
ENGLAND
Teaching to the test
1938
Increased concern over “teaching to the test” rather than teaching for understanding.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Mathematical Association
1938
Creation of new committee by the Mathematical Association (MA) to look at mathematics teaching.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Mathematics education
1940 - 1950
Remarkable scientific and engineering advances prompting greater recognition of the importance of mathematics education in schools.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Norwood report
1940
The Norwood report. Changes to exams and school system proposed.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Mathematics education
1942 - 1945
US government’s interest in mathematics education as a matter of national defence during the Second World War. Number of committees concerned about poor mathematical skills of officers joining armed forces.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Education Act
1944
The Education Act new system of primary and secondary education. Free secondary education for all.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
NCTM
1944 - 1945
NCTM Commission on Post-War Plans report provides recommendations aimed at achieving “functional competence” in mathematics.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Life Adjustment Movement
1945
New educational programme - Life Adjustment Movement, emerges from within education community. The Movement aims to provide a curriculum that would teach “life skills” that would be particularly valuable for students who did not plan to continue on to college or other types of postsecondary training after high school. The Movement gains traction throughout the 1940s, is touted by several federal and state education agencies, and criticised by academics.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Life Adjustment Movement
1946 - 1949
The public-school system is met with criticism and the Life Adjustment Movement fizzles out.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
Mathematics education
1947
Steelman’s presidential report 'Manpower for Research', argues that the requirement for successful high school mathematics programmes would lead to an increased number of scientists/engineers.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Life Adjustment Movement
1949
Life Adjustment Movement gains substantial support among educators.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
O Levels and A Levels
1951
O Levels and A Levels replaced the School Certificate (SC) and the Higher School Certificate (HSC).
Assessments and tests
USA
New Math
1951 - 1969
Its focus is on instruction in abstract mathematical concepts at elementary grades, curricula that emphasises coherent logical explanations for mathematical procedures and a move away from anti-intellectualism of the previous half-century. Led by mathematicians, seeks to emphasise conceptual understanding rather than learning of isolated skills.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
New Math
1951
University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics is the first major project linked with the New Math era.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
ATAM
1952
The Association for Teaching Aids in Mathematics (ATAM) established.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
CEEB
1955
College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) establishes a Commission on Mathematics to investigate the needs of the American youth.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
CEEB
1955
University interest in secondary education finds its voice in CEEB Commission on Mathematics – 1st national proposal for reorganisation of secondary mathematics curriculum to include “modern mathematics”.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
ATAM
1955
ATAM first journal Mathematics Teaching appears.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
MA
1955
MA published the Teaching of Mathematics in Primary School report.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Sputnik
1957
Advances of Soviet technology exemplified by Sputnik foster an environment constructive for the reform of mathematics education in the US America’s scientific community.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
Mathematics education
1958
Congress passes the National Defence Education Act to increase the number of science, mathematics and foreign language majors as a response to the Sputnik launch.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
SMSG
1958
American Mathematical Society sets up the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), led by Edward G. Begle (Yale), to develop new high school curriculum.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Reform
1958
Two reforms: National Defence Education Act (NDEA), and the School Mathematics Study Group created by the National Science Foundation (NSF).
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
NCTM
1959
NCTM sets up its own curriculum committee – Secondary School Curriculum Committee.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Beloe report
1960
The Beloe report. Proposed CSE as alternative to O Levels.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Progressive education
1960
A. S. Niell's Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Child Rearing (1960) - an account of a radically progressive school in England was published. Hugely influential, by 1970, Summerhill had sold 200,000 copies and is regarded as required reading on 600 university courses.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
The Midland Mathematics Experiment
1962
The Midland Mathematics Experiment (MME).
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
ATAM (ATM)
1962
The Association for Teaching Aids in Mathematics (ATAM) becomes the Association of Teachers of Mathematics (ATM).
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
The School Mathematics Project
1962
The School Mathematics Project (SMP) was established. SMP developed O level and A level courses to decrease the gap between school and university mathematics, and that contained some aspects of 'modern mathematics' such as transformation, vectors and matrices, and statistics. Teachers in the first schools to teach the courses developed text books teachers guides to support other teachers.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Cambridge Conference
1963
First phase of reform movement aimed at college students. The Cambridge Conference marks a second phase in which redesign of instruction for all grades and all levels is important.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
New Math
1963 - 1967
Half of all high schools adopt New Math. The New Math initiative generates hundreds of new textbooks in order to facilitate quick and radical curriculum changes.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
MEI
1963
Mathematics in Education and Industry (MEI) was founded. MEI developed O level and A level syllabuses, consulting companies and university departments to understand what content they wanted included. Early MEI syllabuses contained topics such as probability that were not common in other syllabuses at that time.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
JMC
1963
Joint Mathematical Council formed to improve mathematics teaching in the UK.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Schools Council
1964
Schools Council formed to regulate exam syllabuses in the UK.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Nuffield mathematics
1964
The Nuffield mathematics project started. It created a contemporary mathematics course for students aged 5 to 13, with its content heavily influenced by modern mathematics.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Education Act
1965
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act continues to offer funding for new developments.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Schools Council
1965
Schools Council for the Curriculum and Examinations of Mathematics in Primary Schools established. Course design still left to teachers, but in practice, teachers followed courses in textbooks.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
CSE
1965
Beginning of the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE).
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Schools Council
1965
Schools Council for the Curriculum and Examinations of Mathematics in Primary Schools established. Course design still left to teachers, but in practice, teachers followed courses in textbooks.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Mathematics for the Majority
1967
Mathematics for the Majority project started. It designed a mathematics course for secondary modern and comprehensive school students aged 11 to 15. All the content was made applicable to students' lives. The course contained topics not previously considered suitable for these students, such as probability.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Plowden
1967
The Plowden report published. It recommended a flexible, child-led curriculum, focusing on topics or projects, and for exploration and discovery in learning.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Mathematics education
1970
Two important questions in mathematics continue: •What mathematics should students learn – facts, skills and procedures or concepts and understanding? •How should students learn: teacher-directed with focus on memorisation or student-centred through reasoning and discovery?
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Open Education Movement
1970 - 1973
Development of the Open Education Movement -especially pronounced in relation to disadvantaged and low-income students.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Decimalisation
1971
Decimalisation of currency – currency now based on multiples of 10 and 100. Students spend less time on numerical calculations.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
NIE
1972
National Institute of Education (NIE) established then transferred to Office of Educational Research and Improvement, US Department of Education in 1980. Provides leadership in conduct and support of scientific inquiry into educational process of the time. NIE generates educational research and development and sponsored a number of studies including the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (1972-1978).
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
New Math
1974 - 1979
Many education experts concede New Math is not a success. New math fails because it is unable to raise computational skills. Though not an objective of New Math developers, perception popularised in books like 'Why Johnny can’t add: The failure of new math'.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
GCSE development
1978
The Waddell committee recommended a single examination system at 16. Their recommendations led to the development of the GCSE.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Cockroft
1978
The government commissioned the Cockcroft report into mathematics teaching in response to several concerns including children's lack of basic computation skills.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
NCTM
1980
Agenda for Action (NCTM) recommends problem solving should become main instruction of school mathematics curriculum.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Calculators
1980
Electronic calculators began to be owned by schools.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Cockroft
1982
The Cockcroft report ‘Mathematics Counts’ was published – one of the most seminal texts of the last century. It made many recommendations for mathematics teaching and learning, and also contained a list of the mathematics objectives students should have mastered by the age of 16. These objectives included understanding and application as well as facts and procedures.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Lower Attainers
1983
The Lower Attainers Mathematics Project (LAMP) established.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
A Level
1983
Introduction of subject cores for A Levels made A Level Mathematics more accessible than they were between 1951- 1983.
Curriculum
USA
Mathematics reform
1983
A Nation at Risk (NCEE) fashions an environment that made it possible to attempt to reform mathematics education.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
Mathematics education
1983
Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project explores efficacy of experimental teaching programme.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
GCSE
1984
The work of the Joint Council for CSE and GCE examinations led to the government introducing the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE).
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Schools Council
1984
End to the Schools Council, which regulated the exam syllabus in the UK since 1964.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Mathematics education
1985
The Mathematics 5-16 report published. It made recommendations about the mathematics curriculum and the way mathematics was taught.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Raising Achievement
1985
The Raising Achievement in Mathematics (RAMP) project was established. It aimed to improve students' learning by developing teachers' knowledge and behaviour.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
White paper
1985
The government White paper ‘Better Schools’ was published. It called for a single examination, GCSEs, to replace O levels and CSE.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Calculators
1986
The Calculator Aware Number Curriculum project was established. It investigated how to implement the Cockcroft report's endorsement for the use of calculators in primary schools.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
NCTM
1986
NCTM establishes Commission on Standards for School Mathematics (CSSM).
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
New Standards
1987 - 1989
Re-emphasis on meaning and role of conceptual understanding in mathematics. Other standards created by the NCTM: •Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics •Assessment Standards for School Mathematics •Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
Curriculum
USA
Mathematics education
1987
Richard Skemp's 'The Psychology of Learning Mathematics' contends that progress in the areas of learning and teaching mathematics can only be made when such factors as the abstract and hierarchical nature of mathematics, the relation to mathematical symbolism and the distinction between intelligent learning and rote memorisation are taken into account and instituted in the classroom. Skemp’s thinking underscores the standing of knowledge organisation and function of conceptual understanding in well-developed schema.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE
1988
Mathematics GCE O Level exams at 16 in the UK (not Scotland) replaced by the GCSE. First GCSE examinations.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Curriculum
1988
The Education Reform Act established the National Curriculum for 5-16-year-olds in England and Wales for three core subjects (including mathematics) and seven foundation subjects. It was taught from September 2009.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE
1988
GCSE exams replaced O levels at age 16 in the UK (not Scotland) from 1998. GCSE Mathematics had three tiers of examinations: Higher (A*-D), Intermediate (B-F), Foundation (D-G). Coursework was compulsory. Formula lists were provided and calculators were allowed in all papers.
Assessments and tests
USA
NCTM Standards
1989
NCTM’s ‘Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics’ promotes a variation of progressivism - “constructivism”. By the end of the 1980s, a number of cognitively-oriented mathematics researchers have already inclined towards constructivist theory. Their labours resulted in attempts to re-emphasise the meaning and role of conceptual understanding in mathematics. National Science Foundation is the primary driver for implementing the NCTM Standards across American schools.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
National curriculum
1989
First teaching of the national curriculum in September 1989.
Curriculum
USA
Mathematics curriculum
1990 - 1999
Growing criticisms from professional mathematicians of NCTM aligned reform curricula raises possibility that real focus of reform movement is constructivist classroom techniques rather than “high-level mathematical thought.” Textbooks during the 1990s, for example, appear to contribute to Piaget’s ideas about developmental stages of learning, and Vygotsky’s concept, “Zone of Proximal Development” – philosophies that appear to be consistent with child-centred, co-operative learning approaches to education long favoured by colleges of education. As such, the textbooks depend on student “discoveries" that are considered supplementary to solving “real world problems”.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
NSF
1990 - 1999
NSF is responsible for K-12 mathematics programmes: •Contemporary Mathematics in Context (Core-Plus Mathematics Project) (9-12), •Interactive Mathematics Program (9-12), •MATH Connections: A Secondary Mathematics Core Curriculum (9-11), •Mathematics: Modelling Our World (ARISE) (9-12), •SIMMS Integrated Mathematics: A Modelling Approach Using Technology (9-12).
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Curriculum
1991
First changes to National Curriculum. The content was unchanged, but the number of attainment targets was reduced from fourteen to five.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Teacher education
1991
Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics released.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
NCTM Standards
1991
Wide-state systemic initiatives – grants designed to encourage state education institutions to align state mathematics standards to the NCTM standards, resulting in uniformity and adherence to these standards at state level.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
School Performance tables
1992
School performance tables (sometimes known as league tables) were introduced. These list individual schools' performances against key measures.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Curriculum
1993
Dearing Review of the National Curriculum. Dearing recommended reducing the number of attainment targets and slimming down the curriculum content.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Assessment boycott
1993 - 1994
National teacher boycott of all national assessments – no requirement for continuous assessment.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Specialist Schools Programme
1993 - 1997
Specialist Schools Programme in England allowed schools to specialise in a particular subject. Fifteen new City Technology Colleges focused on mathematics.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
GCSE
1994
A* grade introduced at GCSE and GCSE coursework became optional.
Assessments and tests
USA
NSF
1994
NSF launched Urban Systemic Initiative (USI). Grants aimed to implement the NCTM agenda at school district level in large cities. Followed by a program for Rural Systemic Initiatives.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
California
1994
600+ parents signed a petition asking the school district Palo Alto in California to retain a traditional pre-algebra curriculum.
State specific information (US only)
ENGLAND
TIMMS
1995
Leaked set of TIMMS results showed primary number skills worsening. Teaching methods blamed.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
National tests
1995
National tests introduced for Key Stage 2 (taken by 10-11 year olds) and Key Stage 3 (taken by 13-14 year olds).
Assessments and tests
USA
NCTM
1995
The Mathematically Correct website was created and was used to challenge the NCTM agenda.
Mathematics specific
USA
Standards
1995
Assessment Standards for School Mathematics released.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
NCTM Standards
1995
By 1995, 41 states had created state standards or curriculum frameworks consistent with NCTM standards.
Curriculum
ENGLAND
Calculators
1996
As a response to poorer number skills, mental arithmetic tests and non-calculator tests were added to end of key stage national exams.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Dearing
1996
Dearing review of qualifications for 16-19 year-olds. The review was asked to suggest ways improve the framework of qualifications.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Numeracy Strategy
1996
The new Secretary of State (Gillian Shephard) announced the launch of the National Numeracy and Literacy project to raise standards of basic skills.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
AS Level
1996
The AS Level was introduced and the core content changed for A level.
Assessments and tests
USA
TIMMS
1996
First available results of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) published. The US 8th grade (13-14 year old) students scored slightly below international average in mathematics.
Assessments and tests
USA
California
1996
The adoption of the LAUSD/LASI (Los Angeles Unified School District/Los Angeles Strategic Initiative) standards for mathematics and three other subjects. Textbooks and curricula aligned to these standards were disseminated to schools.
State specific information (US only)
USA
MathLand
1996
MathLand – one of the most controversial curriculum programmes at that time – was aligned to the NCTM Standards. It focused on conceptual understanding,reasoning, problem solving and communication, and required students to invent their own arithmetic methods rather than using the standard algorithms.
Curriculum
USA
Achieve
1996
Achieve (reform organisation aiming to raise academic standards) founded at the National Education Summit.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
NSF
1996
NSF clarified its assumptions about effective, standards-based education. NSF clear in its support of the NCTM Standards and of progressive education – supported the creation of commercial mathematics curricula aligned to the NCTM Standards.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Computers
1997 - 1999
Computers integrated into mathematics education at primary and secondary levels.
General events, initiatives and movements
USA
NCTM Standards
1997
NSF sponsors The K-12 Mathematics Curriculum Center organisation. It aims to support schools in building an education programme using curriculum materials developed for the NCTM’s Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
NCTM Standards
1997
Most states adopt mathematics standards closely aligning the NCTM Standards.
Curriculum
USA
California
1997
Systemic initiatives like LAUSD in Los Angeles successful in promoting NCTM Standards.
State specific information (US only)
USA
Massachusetts and California
1997
Noyce Foundation actively promotes NCTM-aligned mathematics curricula in Massachusetts and parts of California.
State specific information (US only)
USA
California
1997
Academic Content and Performance Standards Commission (Standards Commission) asked to write mathematics standards for California and submit draft to the State Board of Education for final approval.
State specific information (US only)
USA
TIMMS
1997
Second TIMSS report published comparing 4th grade (9-10 year-old) students in mathematics. US students slightly above international average.
Assessments and tests
USA
California
1997
LAUSD standards weak and vague and a source of controversy.
State specific information (US only)
ENGLAND
GCSE
1998
Tiering grades revised in mathematics: Higher tier (A*-C), Intermediate (B-E), Foundation (D-G).
Assessments and tests
USA
California
1998
More than half of all LAUSD (Los Angeles Unified School District) schools using mathematics curricula aligned to NCTM Standards.
State specific information (US only)
USA
TIMMS
1998
Final TIMSS report compared students at the end of high school. Mathematics achievement of US 12th grade (17-18 year-old) students along lowest of participating nations.
Assessments and tests
USA
California
1998
Mathematics Framework for standards in California adopted by California State Board of Education. Following the adoption of the new framework, funding was provided to buy instructional materials that were aligned to the new standards. Despite identifying textbooks that align to the new state standards, resistance to California standards at local school district level is significant.
State specific information (US only)
USA
Tensions in mathematics education
1999
At the end of the 1990s, mathematics education policies in public schools are in a state of fluidity, with tensions between parents/mathematicians and professional educators. Widespread implementation of NCTM reforms creates resistance.
Mathematics specific
ENGLAND
Numeracy Strategy
1999
National Numeracy Strategy set out targets and aims for mathematics through yearly teaching programmes to show how maths could be planned taught from reception (aged 5) to year 6 (aged 11).
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Learning to Succeed
1999
The Department for Education and Employment published the White Paper "Learning to Succeed": a new framework for post-16 learning.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
AEA
1999
The Excellence in Cities report led to the Advanced Extension Award (AEA) in 2002, replacing the S-level for the top 10% of A-level candidates.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
1999
Common formula sheet introduced to GCSE mathematics.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Numeracy
1999
Improving literacy and numeracy: A fresh start report showed low levels of adult numeracy and literacy.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Urban Systemic Program
1999
Urban Systematic Initiative (USI) evolved into Urban Systemic Program (USP). It aimed to provide a more rigorous science and mathematics education to students in some of the largest urban primary and secondary schools in the US, particularly minority groups.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
USA
Mathematics education
1999
Release of Liping Ma’s Basic Skills Versus Conceptual Understanding: A Bogus Dichotomy in Mathematics Education. Argues it is not possible to teach conceptual understanding in mathematics without the supporting basic skills, and basic skills are weakened by a lack of understanding.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2000
All GCSEs required to have a non-calculator paper.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
National Strategies
2000 - 2004
National Strategies contract first delivered by CfBT, later passed to Capita.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
A Levels
2000 - 2004
Curriculum 2000. Students can take between five and six A Levels, compared to the traditional three or four. Structure of A Levels changed to six modules studied over two years; first half (the AS) assessed at the end of the first year and the second half (A2 level) assessed at the end of the second year.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
National tests
2000 - 2004
Attainment in primary mathematics appeared to increase. Mathematics education in primary schools highly standardised.
Mathematics specific
USA
NCTM Standards
2000
NCTM release Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM). It is a revision of the 1989 NCTM Standards and intends to address some of the criticism of the first document.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Skills for life
2001
The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. Government’s response to Moser report.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
No Child Left Behind
2001
Congress passes the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. The Act aims for all students to succeed and aims to reduce gaps. The Act authorises financial incentives for schools with good performance. The principal law for K-12 general education in the US from 2002 to 2015.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Math Wars
2001
First attempt at finding peace in Math Wars. National Research Council publish Adding It Up, which suggests that pitting skill against understanding creates a false dichotomy.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
ACME
2002
Advisory Committee on Mathematics Education (ACME) set up to provide advice to the government. Mathematics and Computing Colleges introduced.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2003
Start of a common approach to assessing the Using and Applying Mathematics (Ma1) assessment objective – 50% coursework and 50% examination.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
JCQ
2004
The Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) replaced the Joint Council for General Qualifications.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Smith Report
2004
The Smith Report (Making mathematics count) published. It identified three areas of major concern: the shortage of specialist mathematics teachers; the failure of the curriculum, assessment and qualifications framework to meed many learners' needs; and the lack of infrastructure, resources and a professional development culture to support mathematics teachers.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
National tests
2005
Key Stage 1 national tests (taken by 6-7 year-olds) changed from externally marked to teacher-marked assessments.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
NCETM
2006
National Centre for Excellence in Mathematics (NCETM) set up.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
A level
2008
Stretch and challenge and A* grade introduced to A2 level. The aim was to develop broader skills and distinguish between candidates at the highest level. the changes affected exams from 2010 onwards.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2008
GCSE mathematics moved from three tiers to two tiers: Higher (grades A*-C) and Foundation (grades C-G).
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Williams report
2008
The Williams’ review of primary mathematics teaching was published, leading to the Mathematics Specialist Teaching Programme.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Mathematics education
2008
National Mathematics Advisory Panel Report provides recommendations based on research literature. It suggests that research does not support instruction that is either completely ‘student-centred’ or ‘teacher-directed’. The curriculum should simultaneously develop conceptual understanding, computational fluency and problem-solving skills.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
National tests
2009
Key Stage 3 national tests (for 13-14 year-olds) abolished (including mathematics).
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Rose review
2009
The Rose review of primary education published. It recognised the value of cross-curricula studies as well as individual subjects. In mathematics, it stated that by the time children are seven they should have a good grasp of the numeracy skills they needed to make good progress.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
Cambridge review
2009
The Cambridge Primary review was published. It considered 10 themes including curriculum and assessment. It recommended basing education around twelve aims and eight domains of knowledge rather than the traditional core and non-core subjects. In mathematics, it recommended removing the national numeracy strategy and ensuring mathematics was reintegrated with the rest of the curriculum.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2009
Coursework assessment removed in GCSE mathematics.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Nuffield review
2009
The findings from the Nuffield review of 14-19 education and training were published. It made five recommendations: to re-assert a broader vision of education, to ensure system performance indicators are fit for purpose, to redistribute power and decision making to give more room to the learner voice, to create strongly collaborative local learning systems, and to develop a more unified system of qualifications.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Race to the Top
2009
Introduction of the Race to the Top grant program by President Obama. The programme aims to support schools in reducing gaps between students.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
National strategies
2010
The National Numeracy Strategy ended and was replaced by other DfE recommended schemes.
Mathematics specific
ENGLAND
School governance
2010
Reduced role of local authorities and rise of Multi-Academy Trusts.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
GCSE
2010
The English Baccalaureate introduced to encourage the study of English, mathematics, science, a language and history or geography.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Teacher education
2010
The NCETM had an increasing role in supporting mathematics-specific professional development. The organisation was responsible for developing and co-ordinating mathematics professional development as an additional layer to existing initiatives (rather than as a replacement).
Mathematics specific
ENGLAND
Mathematics education report
2010
Hodgen et al.’s report about upper secondary mathematics education showed England as an outlier in its provision of mathematics for 16-19 year-olds as it was not a compulsory subject. England was also unusual for including mechanics within mathematics rather than physics.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Common Core
2010
The Common Core State Standards were published. These standards were intended to provide the same education to all students across the country and their development was supported by 51 states and territories. They emphasised both skill development and student understanding.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
ESEA
2010
President Obama administration release blueprint for reform of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which replaces the NCLB Act. NCLB considered controversial because it punished schools that did not demonstrate improvement. The incoherence of fifty different sets of standards, tests, and passing scores provoked by NCLB, together with exaggerations of student learning on state tests compared to NAEP results, created fertile ground for the concept of the Common Core to gain traction.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
USA
Common Core
2011
By 2011 most states adopted the Common Core Standards.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2012
Strengthened assessment for GCSE mathematics (specification content did not change).
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Mathematics mastery
2012
Adoption of the Mathematics Mastery curriculum and professional development programmes in many UK schools.
Mathematics specific
USA
PISA
2012
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) – US performs better than other progressive nations in mathematics, ranking 36/65. Many students focused on memorising.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Free Schools
2014
Mathematics free schools opened in some cities and areas of the UK.
Bodies, organisations, councils, projects and strategies
ENGLAND
Academies
2014
National Curriculum made non-compulsory for Academies.
General events, initiatives and movements
ENGLAND
Mathematics Hubs
2014
Increased level of centralisation, with guidance on mathematics teaching disseminated through new Mathematics Hubs.
Mathematics specific
ENGLAND
GCSE
2015
A new curriculum for Mathematics GCSE and English introduced, with a new grading scale of 1-9.
Curriculum
ENGLAND
Core Mathematics
2015
New Core Mathematics qualifications introduced for first teaching in order to provide alternative pathway to AS/A Level Mathematics for students with good GCSE pass grade who intend to progress to HE courses or employment that require significant use of mathematics (e.g. psychology or geography degrees).
Assessments and tests
USA
TIMMS
2015
TIMSS study. US 4th graders’ (9-10 year-olds) average mathematics score higher than the average of students in 34 education systems. Both 4th and 8th graders (13-14 year-olds) show long-term improvement since 1995.
Assessments and tests
USA
PISA
2015
PISA tests – examines students’ understanding of mathematics and other subjects. US average score in mathematics decreases by 11 points.
Assessments and tests
USA
ESSA
2015
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) passes in the houses of Congress. Replaces the NCLB legislation.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts
ENGLAND
GCSE
2017
First year for reformed 9-1 graded GCSEs. Subject content changed, new grading system covers higher tier grades (9-4) and foundation tier grades (5-1). Fewer formulae provided and no formulae sheet in exams, additional content, some topics moved from higher to foundation tier.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
A Level mathematics
2017
New A Levels in Mathematics and Further Mathematics first introduced for teaching.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
GCSE mathematics
2017
The reformed 2015 GCSE has more content and emphasis on problem solving. Examined for the first time in 2017.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
National Reference Test
2017
The National Reference Test for mathematics and English language introduced, testing changes in performance standards over time.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Reception Baseline
2017
After a primary assessment consultation, plans were made to introduce a statutory Reception Baseline Assessment (RBA) in autumn 2021 (postponed from 2020 due to COVID-19) to show progress from reception (4-5 years) to end of KS2 (10-11 years). The RBA to assess language, communication, literary and mathematics.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
A Level mathematics
2019
First assessment of the new Mathematics A Level.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
Multiplication Tables Check
2019 - 2020
Introduction of the Multiplication tables check (MTC) assessment for key stage 2 students, assessing Year 4 (8-9 year-old) pupils’ recall of multiplication tables. Postponed due to COVID-19.
Assessments and tests
ENGLAND
T Level
2020
The first T Levels (new, more practical level 3 qualifications) available in some colleges in England. More T Level courses to become available in 2021.
Curriculum
USA
ESSA
2020
The ESSA was legislation due to be re-authorised, but this has not happened yet.
Major reports, reviews, books, white papers and acts